Conjunctions with examples and exercises

 Conjunction 

A Conjunction is a word which is used to join words or sentences together ;as,

1. Two and two make four.
2. Come and sit by me.
3. He tried hard, but failed.
4. Work or go away.

The words 'and' , 'but' , 'or' which are used to join one sentences to another are called Coordinating Conjunctions .

More Examples of Conjunctions

1. As he was not at home , I spoke to his father .
2. Since you say so, I must believe it.
3. You cannot succeed because you do not work .
4. Take a cup of milk before you go to bed .
5. When I saw the snake I ran away .
6. If you work , you will pass.
7. Wait here till I return.
8. Ask him whether he wishes to go out or not.
9. Don't answer unless you know.
10. They are poor yet(still) cheerful .
11. You are taller than I (am).

Learn: Such Conjunctions that join together two sentences of unequal rank or order are called Subordinating Conjunctions.

Conjunctions Used in Pairs
1. Either he or his friend has done it.
2. Neither she nor her sister stood first .
3. He is either a fool or a rogue.
4. We neither borrow nor lend money.
5. We both love and honor him.
6. Ramu is both intelligent and diligent.
7. Although he is rich yet he is not happy.
8. The poor man is not only blind but also deaf.
9. Vijay not only passed but also won a scholarship.
10. No sooner did the bell ring than the boys came out of their classes.
11. The old man is so weak that he cannot walk.
12. Hardly had we reached the railway station when the train left.
13. As you sow so shall you reap.
14. It matters little whether we win or lose .
15. I like such boys as are honest .

Combination Of Sentences 

Combined sentences Exercise  with Solution:

1. We bought a horse. We bought a cow.
1. We bought a horse and a cow.

2. Neelam can read English. Neelam can write English .
2. Neelam can read and write English.

3. Harish failed. Ramesh passed.
3. Harish failed but Ramesh passed.

4. I called on you .You were not at home .
4. I called on you but you were not at home.

5. Work hard . You will fail.
5. Work hard or (otherwise) you will fail.

6. Work hard. You will fail in the examination.
6. Unless you work hard , you will fail in the examination ..

7. You are very late. You must hurry.
7. You are very late , so you must hurry.
   As you are very late , you must hurry.
   You must hurry because you are very late.

8. He is very old .He enjoys good health .
8. He enjoys good health although he is very old.

9. His father is poor. People respect him.
9. His father is poor , still (yet) people respect him.

10. He has great wealth . He is unhappy.
10. Although he has great wealth , he is unhappy.
    Though he has great wealth , he is unhappy.

Exercise 1 :
Join each pair of sentences by using 'and' , 'but' , 'or' .

1. Sunil has come . Subash has gone .
2. Do your work . I shall punish you.
3. She is a kind mother .She is a loving mother.
4. We ran fast . We missed the first bus .
5. She must weep . She will die.
6. God made the country .Man made the town.

Exercise 2 : 
Join the pair of sentences by using 'or , else, otherwise, unless'.

1. He must work hard . His teacher will punish him.
2. You must be quiet . You must leave the room.
3. Tell the truth . You will be punished .
4. You must take exercise daily . You will not keep fit.
5. You must work . You will not stand first .
6. She must walk quickly . She will miss the train .

Exercise 3 :
Join the pair of sentences by using 'so, therefore, because, since'.

1. It is raining heavily . We cannot go to school .
2. Hari Singh failed in the examination. He did not work hard.
3. The little boy is crying . He has lost a two rupee note.
4. Leela is liked by all. She is sweet tempered .
5. Ashoka was a good king. All his people liked him .
6. Subash was not there. I spoke to his brother .

Exercise 4 :
Join the pair of sentences by using 'though, although , yet, still.'

1. She is an honest woman . She is very poor .
2. The rich man is not happy. He has a lot of wealth .
3. My father is poor. The neighbours respect him.
4. Rajni was weak in all the subjects . She passed the examination .
5. The  boy did not succeed. He studied hard.
6. They are poor. They are contented.

Kinds of Pronouns

Kinds Of Pronouns 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a Noun ; as,


Somu is the son of a doctor. He is a good student . He goes to school daily . All the teachers like him. 

1. Personal Pronouns 

1. The Pronouns which stand for the person or persons speaking are called Pronouns of the First Person ; as,

I, we, me, us , mine , ours .

2. The Pronouns which stand for the person or persons spoken to  are called Pronouns of the Second Person ;as,

thou, thee, you , yours .

3. The Pronouns which  stand for the person or thing spoken of are called Pronouns of the Third Person ;as,

he , she ,it, they , him , her, them ,his ,its , theirs .

2. Reflexive and  Emphasizing Pronouns 

Read the following sentences:

1. I hurt myself .
2. We enjoyed ourselves.
3. You blame yourselves for it.

The Pronouns 'myself', 'ourselves', 'yourselves' refer to the subjects of the verbs . Such Pronouns are called Reflexive Pronouns .

Now study the following sentences:

1. I myself did it.
2. He himself went there.
3. The horses itself fell.

The Pronouns 'myself', 'himself', 'itself' are used with a Noun or Pronoun for the sake of emphasis . Such Pronouns are called Emphasizing Pronouns .

Note: Reflexive Pronouns are formed by adding is 'self' or 'selves'.

Exercise 1 :

Fill in the blanks with suitable Reflexive or Emphasizing Pronouns :

1. I ..... did this.
2. He ..... is to blame .
3. You ..... ruined your family.
4. I .....shall speak to him.
5. The child hurt....
6. The theif .....confessed his guilt.
7. Neelam hid ...behind a curtain.
8. Teja ruined ...by gambling.
9. We enjoyed .....there.
10. They .....heard him saying so.

3. Demonstrative Pronoun

Read the following sentences:

This is a chair.
That is a table .
These are chairs .
Those are tables.

The Pronouns 'this , that,  these, those ' point out certain objects .Such Pronouns are called Demonstrative Pronouns .
Now study these sentences :

Demonstrative Pronouns              Demonstrative Adjective 

1. This is my book .         This book is mine .
2. That is our house. That house is ours.
3. These are brave men.         These men are brave .
4. Those are lovely flowers. Those flowers are lovely.

It is clear from the above sentences that Demonstrative Pronouns are not followed by a noun whereas Demonstrative Adjective are placed before Nouns.

Exercise 2 :

Fill in the blanks with Demonstrative Pronouns :

1. .....is a wrong sentence.
2. .....are sweet mangoes .
3. ......is a costly.
4. ......are your ribbons .
5. .....are green trees.

4. Indefinite Pronouns 

Study the following sentences:
1. All men are moral.
2. Some are born great.
3. Many were killed in accident .
4. Few escaped unhurt.
5. Somebody has stolen my watch.

The Pronouns 'all, some , many , few, one ' refer to persons or things in a general way . Such Pronouns are called Indefinite Pronouns.

Learn (Indefinite Pronouns ) any, anyone, everybody , something , none , nobody.

5. Distributive Pronouns 

Study the following sentences:

1. Each of the girls received a watch.
2. Either of you can leave .
3. Neither of these pens is mine .

The Pronouns 'each, either , neither' refer to persons or things ,one at a time. Such Pronouns are called Distributive Pronouns .

Note : Distributive Pronouns are always singular and are followed by a verb in the singular.

6. Interrogative Pronoun 

Read the following sentences:

1. Who goes there?
2. Whose pen is this ?
3. Whom do you want to see?
4. What do you ask?
5. Which is your house?

In the above sentences 'who, whose, whom , what , which ' are used for asking questions . They are called Interrogative Pronouns .

Remember:
1) 'Who' , 'Whose' , 'Whom' are used for asking questions about persons .
2) 'What' is used for asking questions about things.
3) 'Which' is used for asking questions about particular person or thing.

Examine the following sentences:

Interrogative Pronouns           Interrogative Adjectives
1. Whose is this book? Whose book is this?
2. Which is your watch ?   Which watch is yours?
3. What is the question that What question do you ask ?
   you ask?

It is clear from the above sentences that Pronouns can also be used as Adjectives when they are placed before nouns .

Exercise 3:

Fill in the blanks with Interrogative Pronouns :

1. ......are you doing here?
2. .....do you want?
3. Of these pens .....do you like?
4. .....came here to see you ?
5. .....brings you here today?
6. .....do you wish to see?
7. ......wrote this book?
8. .....is better, health or wealth?
9. ..... do two and two make?
10. ....did you invite to dinner?
11. ....of these boys stood first?
12. .....were you speaking to?
13. .....did you give my message?
14. ....do you consider in the wrong?
15. ....of these scooters is yours?

7. Relative Pronoun 

Read the following sentences :

1. I have lost the watch. I brought the watch yesterday.
2. I met Raju. Raju had won a scholarship  .
3. I have a cow. The cow is white.

Each of the above pairs of sentences can be combined 'watch' therefore, it is a Pronoun . Moreover 'which' joins two sentences .
Thus it does the function of a conjunction .

In sentences 3, 'that' does the work of a Pronoun and a Conjunction 'which' , 'who' , 'that' are called Relative Pronouns .

Learns : A Relative Pronoun does the work of a Pronoun and a Conjunction .

The nouns to which a Relative Pronoun refers or relates is called its Antecedent . In sentence 1, the antecedent of which is 'watch' .In sentence 3 , the antecedent of that is 'cow'.
Remember : A Relative Pronoun always agrees with its antecedent in Number, Gender and Person .

Exercise 4 :

Pick out the Relative Pronouns in the following sentences and tell their antecedents:

1. I have seen the boy who was hurt.
2. Our team will play the match which is to begin tomorrow.
3. He has sold the house which he brought .
4. Here is the pen that my uncle gave me .
5. It is an ill-wind that blows no body any good.
6. This is the house that my father built .
7. This is the girl whose mother died.
8. Ashoka was the wisest king that ever lived .
9. This is the man whom we saw this morning.
10. All that glitters is not gold.

Exercise 5 :

Fill in the blanks with suitable Relative Pronouns:

1. I know ......you mean.
2. This is the boy .....stole my book.
3. She has said ......she wanted to say.
4. He has a friend ......helps him.
5. I do not like the boys .....have dirty habits .
6. There was none .....I could trust .
7. This is the pen .....I like .
8. He .....speaks in my favor is my friend.
9. There are the books ......I brought yesterday .
10. It is only camels ......can cross the deserts.

Exercise 6 :

Join together each of the following pairs of sentences by means of a Relative Pronoun :

1. This is the girl. Her mother is a doctor.
2. Here is the watch . I told you  about it.
3. I met a boy. He was running fast.
4. This is the pen . I lost it yesterday.
5. I have a pet dog. He is faithful to me.
6. I saw a juggler. He was showing tricks.
7. It was Nutan . She helped me .
8. This is the house . Jack build it.
9. This is the road . It leads to the railway station .
10. Bring me the books, The books are on the table.

Preposition

The Preposition 

A Preposition is a word which is placed before a Noun or a Pronoun to show its relation to some other words in a sentences ;as,

1. The glass is full of milk.
2. I depend on you for help.
3. Please be kind to him.

Words followed by Prepositions

1. Sudhir is absent from school today
2.  He acted upon my advice.
3. The boy is afraid of  his teachers .
4. I do not agree to it.
5. The hunter aimed at the dove .
6. He is angry with his brother.
7. We arrived at the railway station.
8. I asked for leave .
9. Attend to me , please .
10. This book belongs to me.
11. She is blind of one eye.
12. Rajiv is born of rich parents .
13. They are busy with their parents.
14. Take care of your health .
15. He does not care of your health.
16. I congratulate you on your success.
17. This book consists of 100 pages.
18. The farmer is cruel to his wife .
19. The teacher has no control over the class.
20. Everybody desires for wealth .
21. Neelam has taste for music .
22. Sarvesh comes of a noble family.
23. The meeting will come off tomorrow.
24. I called on you yesterday .
25. I called at his house last night.
26. She complains of pain in her arm.
27. John died of fever .
28. I differ with you.
29. My father deals in tea.
30. Cows feed on grass.
31. Priya invited her friends to dinner.
32. I enquired after her health .
33. Do not laugh at the poor.
34. You should pray to God daily.
35. She is suffering from fever.
36. This chair is different from that.
37. Surjeet is fond of mangoes .
38. I am pleased with you .
39. Please open your book at page 40.
40. Come and sit by me.
41. The box is made of wood  .
42. The man jumped into the well.
43. Ahmed is sure of his success.
44. He is hard of hearing .
45. The house was on fire .
46. A pen is to write with.
47. Always work with a will.
48. Trust in God and do the right .
49. Let us go on foot.
50. I am sorry for the delay.

Exercise 1 :

Fill in the blanks with suitable Prepositions :

1. We listened .....the teacher.
2. I called .....her this morning .
3. They congratulated me ......my success.
4. Ram was married .....Sita.
5. Radha is suffering .....fever.
6. Sonu is born .....rich parents.
7. The dog is faithful ....man.
8. She is proud .....her beauty .
9. God is kind .....all.
10. We are not afraid .....death.

Kinds of Adverbs

Kinds of Adverbs

An Adverb is a word which adds to the meaning of a verb, an Adjective or another Adverb ; as,
1. She treats me well.
2. He is quiet well .
3. The girls work very hard.

Kinds of Adverb

1. Adverbs of Time 

Read the following sentences:
1. He comes here daily.
2. I brought this pen yesterday.
3. My parents get up early .

The Adverbs 'daily' , 'yesterday', and 'early' show when action is done .Such Adverbs are called Adverbs of Time .

Learn (Adverbs of Time ) : Today , tomorrow , late , early , soon , before , ago , already , immediately.

Adverbs of Time answer the question - 'When' ?

2. Adverbs of Manner 

Read the following sentences:
1. The old woman walks slowly.
2. Rita talks wisely.
3. Our team plays well.

The Adverb 'slowly' , 'wisely', 'well' , show how an action is done .Such Adverb are called Adverb of Manner.
Adverb of Manner answer the question - 'How ' ?

Note  : Adverbs which end in 'ly' and are derived from adjectives are Adverbs of Manner.

3. Adverb of Place 

Read the following sentences:

1. Boys , sit here.
2. God is everywhere .
3. The bird flew away.

The Adverb 'here', 'everywhere' , 'away' show where an action is done . Such Adverbs are called Adverbs of Place.
Adverb of Place answer the question -'Where'?

Learn (Adverb of Place ): here , there , in , out , inside, outside, below, above ,far , near, forward , backward , up, down, anywhere, elsewhere ,etc.

4. Adverb of Number 

Read the following sentences :

1. I have been to Bankok twice.
2. Good boys and girls never tell a lie.
3. We often go to the lake.

The Adverb 'twice' , 'never' , 'often' , show how often an action is done. Such adverbs are called Adverb of Number.
Adverbs of number answer the question - 'How often '?

Learn ( Adverb of Number ): Once , twice, always , never , seldom.

5. Adverb of Degree

Read the following sentences :

1. Dara Singh is very strong.
2. My watch is quite right.
3. He treats her most cruelly.

The Adverbs 'very' , 'quite', 'most' , show how much or to what extent a thing is done .Such Adverbs are called Adverbs of Degree.
Adverbs of Degree answer the question - 'How much ' or ' How far'? or 'To what extent'?

Learn ( Adverb of Degree) : Nearly, almost, rather, too, fully, partly, enough , hardly, wholly, etc.

6. Interrogative Adverbs 

Read the following sentences:

1. How do you do?
2. When were you born?
3. Why are you late ?

The Adverbs 'How' , 'When' , 'Why' are used for asking questions. Such Adverbs are called Interrogative Adverbs .

Exercise 1 :
Pick out the Adverbs in the following sentences and state the kind of each Adverb :

1. Our soldiers fought bravely.
2. They looked for her everywhere .
3. The school will open tomorrow.
4. I came often to this place .
5. He was partly pleased .
6. The sun is extremely hot.
7. How are you today?
8. He loves you truly.
9. It is too hot to go out.
10. He frequently  comes to see me.

Exercise 2 :
Fill in the blanks with suitable Adverbs:

1. The child slept....
2. The dog barked...
3. He comes ....
4. I shall return ....
5. The water was....cold.
6. Come ...and sit.....
7. ....did he die?
8. .....do you beat him?
9. I visited him....
10. The train stops....

Exercise 3:
Match the opposite of the Adverb in Column A and Column B .

Column A              Column B
1. carefully badly
2. follishly noisely
3. kindly         cruelly
4. quickly        wisely
5. sadly        carelessly
6. well        joyfully

Formation of Adverbs 

Most Adverbs are formed from Adjectives by adding 'ly'; as,
1. beautiful beautifully
2. bright brightly
3. bad badly
4. neat neatly

Exercise 4 :

Make the Adverb from the following Adjectives :

1. easy
2. quick
3. sudden
4. strong
5. blind
6. warm
7. happy
8. strange
9. glad
10. lucky
11. faithful
12. usual
13. lazy
14. quiet
15. certain
16. silent

Kinds of Adjectives

Kinds Of Adjectives

An Adjective is a word which adds something to the meaning of a noun.

1. Tohin is an intelligent boy.
2. Chandigarh is a beautiful city.
3. Always drink fresh water.
4. America is a rich country.

1. Adjective of Quality

Read the following sentences:

1. The black cat caught a rat.
2. Subhash is a rich man.

The words 'black' and 'rich' are Adjectives , because they add to the meaning of nouns 'cat' and 'man' . They show the quality or kind of the nouns which they qualify.
They are Adjectives of Quality .

Adjectives of Quality answer the question ' Of what kind ' ?

2. Adjective of Quantity 

Read the following sentences:
1. Rajni brought some rice.
2. He has much money.
3. The child ate the whole cake.

The Adjective 'some', 'much', and 'whole', show how much of a thing is meant. Such Adjectives are called Adjectives of Quantity. Adjective of Quantity answer the questions 'How Much'?

3. Adjectives of Number

Read the following sentences :

1. Many boys are present today.

2. Some girls came late.

3. I have four apples .

4. The first boy in the second row is my brother..

The Adjectives 'some' , 'many' , 'four' , 'first' ,'second' show how many persons or thing there are, or in what order it stands .Such Adjectives are called Adjective of Number.
Adjectives are called Adjectives of Number .

Adjectives of Number answer the question- 'How many' ? or 'In what order'?

4. Distributive Adjective

Read the following sentences :

1. Each beggar was given alms.
2. Every man must do his duty.
3. Either man can win the match .
4. Neither came to my help.

The Adjective 'Each' , 'Every' ,'Either' and 'Neither' show that persons or things are taken singly or separately.
These are called Distributive Adjectives.

5. Demonstrative Adjectives 

Read the following sentences:

1. This boy is my son.
2. That girl is my daughter.
3. These pens are mine.
4. Those pencils are yours.
5. I love such boys.

The Adjective 'This' , 'That','These' ,'Those' ,'Such' are Demonstrative Adjectives. They point out which persons or things are meant . Demonstrative Adjective answer the question-'Which'?
The word 'Demonstrative' means 'Pointing Out'.

6. Interrogative Adjectives

Read the following sentences:

1. Which pen will you take?
2. What building is that?
3. Whose watch is this?

The words 'Which' , 'What' and 'Whose' are used with nouns to ask questions. Such Adjective are called Interrogative Adjectives.

Note: Possessive Adjective show possession or relationship. They answer the question 'Whose' ? e.g.

1. This is my watch .
2. My uncle is a banker.

Exercise 1 :

Pick out the Adjectives in the following sentences and state the kind of each of them:

1. Madras is a big city.
2. Priya is an intelligent girl.
3. My uncle gave me a ten rupee note.
4. Read the third chapter of the book.
5. All men are mortal.
6. Is there no milk in the jug?
7. We have enough wealth .
8. These are sweet oranges.
9. Ten boys and girls went to the lake.
10. I like the Japanese dress.
11. We lead a happy life.
12. Which road leads to the Birla Mandir?
13. Whose umbrella is this?
14. Neither boy will pass this year.
15. A wise enemy is better than a foolish friend.

Exercise 2 :

Supply suitable Adjectives in the blank spaces:

1. This book contains .....stories.
2. There arose a .....storm.
3. He did not eat .....rice.
4. Is there .....tea in the teapot ?
5. My father bought ......chairs.
6. .....building has ..... storeys.
7. Mini is a ....girl.
8. .....dress is better than ....dress.
9. Solomon was a very .....man.
10. There is....hope of .....recovery.
11. .....game do you play?
12. .....man must do....duty.
13. Are .....shoes yours?
14. Sugar is sweet but quinine is.....
15. .....house is this?

Exercise 3 :

Put each Adjective in Column A before the Noun which suits it best Column B:

Column A                 Column B

1. bright               1. dog
2. deep                 2. grass
3. faithful             3. times
4. golden             4. voice
5. green               5. man
6. many               6. well
7. much               7. cloth
8. superior           8. money
9. sweet               9. day
10. wise              10. ring

Verb and Kinds of Verb with examples

 Kinds of Verb

A verb is a word which says something about a subject.

Kinds of Verb- TRANSITIVE

Read the following sentences:

1. The teacher teaches the boy.
2. The carpenter makes the furniture.

Each of the above verb requires an object to complete its sense.

A verb which requires an object to complete its sense is called a Transitive Verb.

Kinds of Verb- INTRANSITIVE

Read the following sentence:
1. Cats mew.
2. Birds fly.

Each of the above verb makes good sense and does not require an object.

A verb which does not require an object to complete its sense is called an Intransitive verb.

Read the following sentences:
1. You seem tired .
2. He appears sad.
3. The guilty mind is always in fear.

Each of the above Intransitive verb does not make sense by itself, but requires a word or words to be added after it to make complete sense.

The word or phrase so added is called the Complement .

Note : Some verbs are used both Transitively and Intransitively.Study the following examples:

Transitive                                                    Intransitive
1. He broke the slate .                                  The slate broke .
2. The peon rings the bell.                            The bell rings .
3. He runs a factory.                                      The hare runs.
4. He wrote a story.                                       He wrote clearly.
5. They fly kites.                                            Birds fly in the sky.

Direct and Indirect Objects

Read the following sentences:

1. Abdul gave me a present .
2. I told her a story.

Some transitive verbs have two objects after them: One of which is a person (Indirect Object) and the other a thing (Direct Object) .

The words 'me' and 'her' in the above sentence are Indirect Objects and 'present' and 'story' are Direct Objects.
The Indirect object usually comes before the Direct object.

Exercise 1 :

Pick out verbs in the following sentences and say whether they are Transitive or Intransitive. Name the object of each Transitive verb and the Complement of each incomplete verb:

1. Sunil runs very fast.
2. The children are flying kites.
3. Cats kill rats.
4. She is drawing the map of India.
5. The cows graze in the meadow.
6. Raju won a scholarship.
7. Sardar Harnam Singh teaches us English .
8. The ship sank in the sea.
9. Ashoka was a great king.
10. The sun rises in the east .
11. The earth is round.
12. She seems innocent.
13. Honey tastes sweet.
14. The driver stopped the bus.
15. Milk turns sour in summer.
16. The child laughs .
17. The young man spoke loudly.
18. She is making a doll.
19. The girl became sad.
20. He is an engineer.

Exercise 2:

1. Honey tastes....
2. A good boy obeys....
3. You look ....
4. I found ....
5. The gardener waters.....
6. Boys play....
7. We missed....
8. The sun gives....
9. He is....
10. She became....

Exercise 3:

1. The frog ....into the well. (fell , felled).
2. The woodcutter ....a tree. ( fell, felled).
3. The books .....on the table. ( lying, laying).
4. He .....the books on the table. ( lay, laid).
5. The hen.....an egg. (lay, laid).

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Punctuation in English : Mega Guide to Punctuation

Punctuation marks

When we speak, we stop at intervals to make ourselves intelligible to others. When we write, we use stops in order to make our meaning clear. The use of these stops or marks is called Punctuation.
These 'marks' of punctuation are a great help to the reader and, if properly used, enable him to understand what he or she is reading. A long passage unpunctuated or incorrectly punctuated is much more difficult to understand that the same passage correctly punctuated.

The following are the stops (punctuation marks)  in general use:

• Comma
• Semicolon
• Colon
• Full Stop
• Note of interrogation(?)
• Mark of exclamation (!)

The first four are time stops and mark stops of different lengths. The comma marks the shortest and the full stop, the longest stop.
There are other stops too. They are Question marks, the dash, the brackets, the hyphen and the apostrophe.

Comma (,) :

Uses of comma:

• To seperate words or phrases in apposition
  Example: Gavaskar, the captain, went in to bat.
• To separate the words of same part of speech in a sentence
  Example:He was a wise, learned and upright man.
• After an absolute phrase
  Example:The sun having risen, I left my bed.
• After a nominative of address
  Example:Children, do not make a noise in the romm
• After words of same class going in pairs
  Example: He searched for his friend far and near, high and low, in and out.
• To separate the Subordinate Adverbial clause from the rest of the sentence
  Example:If you do this by tomorrow, I shall be satisfied.
• To separate a clause used in a continuative sense
  Example:I gave the book to him, who handed it over to his friend.
• To separate direct quotation
  Example: "No", said my father, "it cannot be done."
• Before and after words, phrases, or clauses
  Example: He did not, however, gain a big object.

Semicolon (;)

Uses of semicolon :

• To separate the clauses of a compound sentence
  Example: He was brave and large-hearted; so everybody praised him
• To separate loosely related clauses
  Example: Reading makes a full man; speaking, a ready man; writing, an exact man.

Colon (:)

Uses of colon :

• To introduce a quotation
  Example: Bacon says : "Reading makes a full man; speaking, a ready man; writing, an exact man"
• Before examples and explanations
  Example: The main parts of the verb in English are : the present, the past and the past participle
• To separate two contrasted statements
  Example: Man proposes: God disposes.
• To introduce a statement which directly supports the previous one
  Example: He is too much of a cynic : he does not listen to any one.

 

Full Stop (.)

Uses of full stop:

• At the end of every sentence.
• After abbreviations : i.e. M.P. , A. , etc,.

Interrogation (?)

Uses of interrogation :

• After every direct question
  Example: Are you ready now?
• It is not used in the indirect form

Exclamation (!)

Uses of Exclamation

• Used after phrases and sentences expressing sudden emotion or wish
  Example: What a great loss!

Quotation marks or Inverted Commas (" ")

Uses of quotation marks

• These are used in direct speech
  Example: He said, "What a nice rainbow it is!"

Dash (-)

Uses of Dash

• To indicate an abrupt stop or change of thought
  Example: If my friend were alive - but why talk about what is impossible?
• To resume a scattered subject
  Example: Money, health, friends - everything he had.

Apostrophe (')

Uses of Apostrophe

• to make the omission of a letter or letters as Don't, I've.
• in the nouns of a Possessive case; as, Ram's book.
• to make the plurals of figures and letters; 5's , t's .

Brackets [()]

Uses of Brackets

• may be used in place of double dashes to mark off parenthetical sentence from the main one
  Example: When he left the company ( it is twelve years ago) he was not a baby.

Capitals

Uses of capitals

• When beginning a sentence
• When beginning a new line in a poem.
• When writing proper nouns and adjectives derived from them; as; Delhi, Africa, etc,.
• For all nouns and pronouns which indicate some god; as, The Lord, He, Him, etc.
• When beginning a direct narration in a sentence; as, He said,"Love one another as brothers".
• When writing the names of months and days,seasons, title of books, names of place,etc.

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A Simple Test to Test Your Present English Skills

Test Your Present English

Let's test your present grammatical knowledge. I have for you twenty questions which will explore your speech habits.

In the following ten sentences, select the word which you believe is grammatically preferable.

1. I've spoken to everyone except (he, him).
2. No one but (she, her) could possibly love such a man.
3.The cost of new houses (is, are) increasing every day.
4. Please (lie, lay) down.
5. One of his cousins (comes, come) from India.
6.(Who, whom) are you looking at?
7. Your brother is shorter than (I, me).
8. He (don't, doesn't) act the way he should.
9. What would you like for (dessert, desert)?
10. She doesn't live here (any, no) more.

(11-16) In each of following sentence, four words (a), (b), (c) and (d) in bold have been given. Find out which word is incorrect according to English usage.

11.Economist (a) assume (b) that inflation will average(c)around (d) 5% over the next few years.
12.New technology is changing(a) our lifes(b) for the better and does not necessarily (c) result only in more stress (d).
13. Rising(a) prices(b) of food grains will have an adverse impact(c) on developing(d) countries.
14. More than halve(a) the budget (b) has been spent(c) on modernizing(d) the factory.
15.The company is pushing(a) its executives(b) to generate more than a million(c)orders(d) in next nine months.

(16-20) Some parts of the sentences have errors and some are correct. Find out which part of a sentence A, B or C has an error. D for no error.

16. In the modern age (A) / twenty miles are(B)/ not a long distance to be covered(C). / (D)
17.Did he came(A)/ to see you (B)/ yesterday evening?(C)/ (D)
18.No one know(A)/ who solved(B)/ these sums.(C)/ (D)
19. A parent has (A)/ much duties(B)/ towards his child. (C)/ (D)
20.Rosy hadn't been (A)/ to Shimla for ten years(B)/ and was really looking forward to see it again.(C)/ (D).
Each correct choice counts 1 point.
Your grammar has been tested and you know where you stand.
Answers to the above questions will be given in upcoming posts.
Thank You. Hope you like it.

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The Mega Guide to The Sentence in English

Grammar is what you say. Grammar is how you put words together to fashion a thought. So grammar is simply the architecture of ideas as expressed in words.

So to start from the basics, the first lesson we will study is "The Sentence"

The Sentence

Simply , a group of words which makes complete sense is called a sentence.

 

Kinds of sentences

Sentences are of 4 types

1.Statements or assertions
Ex. Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall.

2.Iterrogative- question asking sentences
Ex. Where do you live?

3.Imperative _ sentence that expresses a command
Ex. Be quiet

4. Exclamatory- sentence that expresses strong feelings3
Ex. What a shame!

So these are the different types of sentences we use in our daily life.
Now comes the second part of the lesson

"Subject and Predicate"

Generally, when we make a sentence, we name some person or thing and say something about that person or thing.
Hence every sentence has two parts
1. The part which names the person or thing we are speaking about. This is called the subject of the sentence.
2.The part which tells something about the subject. This part is called Predicate of the sentence.
The subject of a sentence usually comes first, but occasionally it is put after the predicate as;
Here comes the bus.
In imperative sentence the subject is left out; as,
Sit down. ( here subject YOU is understood)

 

 

Exercise

In the following sentences separate the subject and predicate
1. The boy stood on the burning deck.
2.Stone walls do not make a prison.
3.He has a good memory.
4.I shot an arrow into the air.
5.The earth revolves around the sun.
6.Delhi is capital of India.
7.The early bird catches the worm.

That's it from the first lesson. Hope you liked it.
Enjoy learning Grammar with Eseka.

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What is synthesis of complex sentence

SYNTHESIS OF COMPLEX

SENTENCE

Synthesis of complex sentence is the combination of a number of Simple Sentences into one Complex Sentence.
Simple sentences are formed by using a Part of Speech or a phrase.
Compound sentences are formed by with the help of Coordinating Conjunctions .
Complex sentence are formed by using Subordinating Conjuctions ,Relative pronouns or Adverbs,Interrogative Pronouns or Adverbs .
We have already learned the synthesis of simple and compound  sentence  in our previous post,"Synthesis of Simple Sentence" and "Synthesis of Compound Sentence."
Here we study the synthesis of Complex Sentence.

Complex Sentence

 

Synthesis of complex sentence

Combination of a number of Simple Sentence into a single Complex Sentence:

1) By the use of a Noun Clause:

a) He may be innocent. I do not know.
I do not know if he is innocent.
b) I did not go to the meeting . I was lucky.
It was lucky that I did not go to the meeting .
c) They do not like each other . I do not know the reason.
I do not know the reason why they do not like each other.

2) By the use of an Adjective Clause:

a) She rode on her horse. It flew like the wind .
She rode on her horse which flew like the wind.
b) The dog has died. It bit the boy .
The dog that bit the boy has died.
c) There were six blind men. They went to see an elephant. The elephant was very big.
There were six blind men who went to see an elephant which was very big.

3) By the use of Adverb Clause:

a) He worked hard day and night. He did not wish to fail.
He worked hard day and night ,lest he should fail.
b) The problem was difficult. I could not solve it.
The problem was so difficult that I could not solve it.
c) He saw me. He ran away.
As soon as he saw me he ran away .

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What is synthesis of compound sentence?

SYNTHESIS OF COMPOUND SENTENCE

Synthesis is the combination of a number of Simple Sentences into one sentence-{Simple , Compound or Complex }.
Simple sentences are formed by using a Part of Speech or a phrase.
Compound sentences are formed by with the help of Coordinating Conjunctions .
Complex sentence are formed by using Subordinating Conjuctions ,Relative pronouns or Adverbs,Interrogative Pronouns or Adverbs .
We have already learned the synthesis of simple sentence in our previous post."Synthesis of Simple Sentence".

What is synthesis of compound sentence?

Here we study the synthesis of Compound Sentence.

Compound sentence

Combination of a number of Simple Sentence into one Compound Sentence.

1) He went to the garden. He bought mangoes.
He went to the garden and bought mangoes.

2) He is a fool. He is a knave.
He is both a fool and a knave.

3) He is honest. He is poor.
He is poor ,yet he is honest.

4) We did not win the game. We made a good show.
We did not win the game still we made a good show.

5) Run quickly . You will miss the train .
Run quickly ,or you will miss the train.

6) Do not be a borrower. Do not be a lender.
Neither be a borrower nor be a lender.

7) Akbar was merciful to his enemies . He was kind to his friends.
Akbar was not only kind to his friends , but merciful to his enemies also.

8) He has worked very hard . He is sure of his success.
He has worked very hard ,therefore he is sure of his success .

9) The judge read out the judgement. He sentenced the robber to death.
The judge read out the judgement and sentenced the robber to death.

10) The cat is meek .The cat is silent .The cat is shy .The cat is cruel. The mouse runs away at the sight of the cat.The mouse runs into its hole.
The cat is meek and silent , but shy and cruel; and therefore the mouse runs away at the sight of it into its hole.

11) I lost my way . I asked a policeman to direct me. He was new to his work.He could not help me.He called a gentleman passing by to assist me .
I lost my way and asked a policeman to direct me,but he was new to his work and could not help me; therefore he called a gentleman passing by to assist me .

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What is Synthesis of Simple sentence

Synthesis is the combination of number of
Simple sentences into one sentence . {Simple , Compound or Complex.}

Simple sentence are formed by using Part of Speech or a phrase .
Compound sentence are formed with help of Coordinating Conjunctions.
Complex sentence are formed by using Subordinating Conjunctions ,Relative Pronouns or Adverbs.
Synthesis is opposite of analysis . In analysis we break the sentence into clauses ,while in synthesis we combine small sentence into one sentence .

Here we study the synthesis of simple sentence:

Simple Sentence

 

1. By the use of a participle :

a) He got up. He ran away.
Getting up he ran away.
b) He was tired with work . He fell asleep.
Tired with work , he fell asleep.

 

2. By the use of Noun phrase or Noun in Apposition:

a) Akbar defeated Hemu in battle of Panipat. Akbar was the Son of Humayun .
Akbar ,the son of Humayun ,defeated Hemu in battle of Panipat.
b) India was once a rich country.India is now very poor.
India ,once a rich country ,is now very poor.

 

3. By the use of Preposition with a Noun or Gerund:

a) The sun rose . He did not get up .
Even at sunrise he did not get up .
b) He failed many times . He still hopes to pass.
In spite of many failures he still hopes to pass.
c) He failed. He heard the news . He fainted .
On hearing the news of his failure ,he fainted.

 

4. By the use of Nominative Absolute:

a) The police arrived. The crowd dispersed .
The police having arrived ,the crowd dispersed.
b) The sun set. We went home.
The sun having set,we went home.

 

5. By using an Infinitive:

a) We must finish our journey.There are still five miles.
We have still five miles of our journey to finish.
b) He is very fat. He cannot run.
He is too fat to run.

 

6. By using an Adverb or Adverbial phrase:

a) The sun set.The boys had not come home.
The boys had not come home till sunset.
b) He deserved to pass. He failed.
He failed undeservedly.

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9 Tips to Speak English Fluently

How to speak English fluently?

Speak...Speak...Speak

Well, if you want to speak fluent English, you must have to practice daily.  What I am saying is that you should try to speak English even when you know that you are speaking wrong. We all know that we learnt our mother tongue without learning grammar, so it is not necessary that you speak in right grammar all the time. My mother tongue is HINDI language, and as I remember my parents never taught me HINDI GRAMMAR. As a child, I was told to speak some words and phrases and by practising I was able to learn HINDI ( never got good marks in HINDI GRAMMAR though) . So, speak everyday with your friends, family members, etc.  and in a matter of time you will see great improvements.

Listen Carefully

You should listen carefully when people are talking in English.  Watch  English news channels, watch English movies, English shows on TV , etc. Why I am saying to listen to English is that, we tend to remember what we listen. We get to learn new phrases, new words and  also enhance our knowledge. So, try to listen carefully, imagine that you are also speaking in the same flow, try to learn new words and speak them. This will surely improve your fluency in English.

Give GRAMMAR a Back-Seat

Fluency is about active communication. If you are stuck in the pond of GRAMMAR, you might not be able to have an active communication. Remember that even the native English speakers make grammatical errors. Its not that you totally put grammar aside and speak all non-sense, but also at the same time don't think too much about grammar. If you are able to communicate and make others understand what you are saying without learning grammar, then what is the need of GRAMMAR. I believe that grammar is for mid-school students who have to do cram the grammar (I also did).

Learn from your surroundings

We cannot learn any language form textbooks and workbooks (although  we can learn grammar). We have to learn from our surroundings. Take help from the people around you. If anyone asked you something about your native language, what would you do? You would simply help the person. Similarly, there are other people waiting to help you out, it's just you have to take the first step forward.

Don't Translate

Never ever try to translate sentences from your native language to English or any other language. This will take you nowhere.When you want to create an English sentence, do not translate the words from your Mother tongue. Instead, learn phrases and sentences so that you don't have to think have to think twice before speaking. It should be fast and automatic.

Submerge Yourself

You don't have to go anywhere to become a fluent English speaker. You only need to surround yourself with English. You can do this by making rules with your existing friends that you will only speak the language. You can also carry around an iPod and constantly listen to English sentences. As you can see, you can achieve results by changing what your surroundings are. Submerge yourself in it this weird language and you will learn several times faster.

Correct Study Material

A common phrase that is incorrect is, "Practice makes perfect." This is far from the truth. Practice only makes what you are practising permanent. If you practice the incorrect sentence, you will have perfected saying the sentence incorrectly. Therefore, it is important that you study material that is commonly used by most people.

Accept the fact that English is Weird

Sometimes you can find patterns in English grammar, but other times English doesn’t make sense at all. For example, why are “read” (reed) and “read” (red) the same word, but pronounced differently depending on whether you’re speaking in the past or present tense? Or why is “mice” the plural of “mouse”, but “houses” is the plural of “house”?
Unfortunately, there are just as many exceptions as there are rules in English. It’s easy to get stuck on learning how to speak English properly, if you try to find a reason for everything. Sometimes it is weird and unexplainable, so instead the best thing to do is just memorize the strange exceptions and move on.

Don't be afraid to make mistakes

Sometimes it can be difficult to put all those rules and words together into a simple sentence. Don’t let the fear of saying something wrong stop you from speaking at all. Even if you think you’re making a mistake, keep speaking anyway. Most of the time, people will understand what you’re trying to say, even if you make a mistake. Plus, the more you speak, the easier it gets, and the more quickly the right words will come to mind.

Summary:

Don’t waste your time, hope and money on a classroom course. Prepare properly and do focused speaking practice with friendly non-teachers.

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Grammar Fun : Learn All about the 'NOUN'

What is a bloody NOUN?

Well, in this post you will learn 'What is a Noun'?
According to our middle-school teachers, a NOUN is a part of speech which tells a name of a person, place or thing. But, are you sure you can identify each and every noun, how to use correct noun? NO.  So, you need to understand the basics of noun .

So, to understand the basic concept of noun, consider the following situation.
Suppose, in your childhood you went to a circus with your parents and there you some exciting clowns, some unseen animals doing humorous stunts, the dwarfs making fun, and lots more.... I am sure you must have seen all this in some way or the other. But, the point is did you know who is a clown or what is the name of a particular animal by birth? It sounds awkward, but the answer is NO.
Well, we learn all these things as we grow up. I remember during my childhood, whenever  I saw something which I don't know about or rather I have seen it first time, I quickly went to my mother and asked "What is this?" or "Who is he"? etc.(making idiotic faces).
So, coming back to our topic, Noun is a word which answers these type of questions like"Who is he?" "What is that?" "What is the name of this animal?"
For example, a stranger comes to your home and rings the doorbell. The first question you would ask him is "Who are You"  and he will answer his name. Why he has come to your home? etc, .
So, in the above example, the name of that stranger is a NOUN.

You might be wondering why I have written all this non-sense? 
Yes, you are wondering. The answer is simple, I am not making you cram the definition of noun like all the moron school teachers did to me  rather I want that every reader of this post must understand the meaning of NOUN, not just learning its definition for school exams but relating the use of noun to our day-to-day life...

Now, we will touch the NOUN in details...

So, I hope you must have understood what a noun is...  Now we will move further and will learn the various types of nouns.

Again think of your childhood, what are the types of question you would have asked?
For example, you might have asked who is he when a unknown man came to your house?
You might have asked what is that animal when you first saw an elephant?
You might have asked what is that thing by looking at an umbrella?
There are infinite questions you might have asked and these various types of questions give rise to the various types of nouns. It is simple as we are just dividing the nouns in some pre-defined categories.
So, the question arise how do we classify nouns in different categories. Well, I also don't know who have classified nouns, but what we study is that we can classify nouns according to gender, number, etc. Given below are the types of nouns.

Types of nouns:

Proper noun : Name of a particular person or place. Example, Ashoka was a great King.
Here, Ashoka is a proper noun.
Common noun : A name given in common to every person. In the above example, Ashoka was a great king.
King is a common noun.

The concept is that, the noun Ashoka refers to a particular king but the noun king may be applied to other kings as well.

Collective noun : Name of a number of person or things taken together. Example, A fleet, which is a collection of ships and vessels.
Abstract nouns:  It is usually the name of a quality, action or state considered apart from the object to which it belongs; examples include;
Quality- goodness, kindness, etc,
Action - Laughter, theft, movement, etc.
State- Childhood, sleep, sickness etc

These were some classification of nouns. Now we will study some other important classification in details.

Classification of noun on the basis of gender.

In general there is no distinction between masculine, feminine in English nouns. However, gender is sometimes shown by different forms or different words when referring to people or animals.
A noun that denotes a male is  said to be of masculine gender; as; boy, lion, hero, etc.
A noun that denotes a female is  said to be of feminine gender; as; girl, lioness, heroine, etc.
A noun that denotes either a male or female is said to be of common gender; as; parent, child, etc.
A noun that denotes neither a male nor female is said to be of neuter gender; as; book,pen,  etc.

Objects without life are personified, as if they were living beings. We regard them as male or females;as;
The sun sheds his beams on rich and poor alike.

So , in this post you learnt about nouns and classification of nouns. In the further post, I will tell you more about nouns formation and will also study some more concepts of nouns.
Hope you enjoyed.

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Exercise on synthesis of sentence

Exercise on synthesis of sentence:

Exercise on synthesis of sentence is very important for proper understanding of  synthesis of sentence which i have discussed in the previous post which are as follows:

1. Synthesis of Simple Sentence
2. Synthesis of compound Sentence
3. Synthesis of Complex Sentence

The following Exercise on synthesis of sentence is been divided into various part . Each part consists of higher level than the previous part. Solve different parts of Exercise on synthesis of sentence to fully understand the topic:

 Combine the following sentence into one sentence:

Exercise on synthesis of sentence--part 1:

1) He was declared guilty by the magistrate . Even his best friends believed the verdict to be just.
2) That animal may be a fish . It may be a serpent. It must be one of them.
3) A bad boy does not go to school. He does not learn his lessons . A good boy is regular . He learns his lessons every day.
4) Vidya Sagar was a clever boy . He was not proud of his ability . He was courteous and helpful to everyone.
5) The monsoon failed . The tanks became empty . The rivers were dry . The fields could not be irrigated . No grain could be sown. A feminine was apprehended.

Exercise on synthesis of sentence--part 2:

6) He passed the examination .No one expected him to do so. He came out at head of the list of the successful candidates.
7) A fox was one day passing by a vineyard . She looked up . She saw some lovely bunches of grapes . The grapes were high above her head. She longed to have them.
8) He caught the robbers. He never got back the stolen property. It consisted of gold and silver. It was worth fifty thousand rupees.
9) I have not heard from him. I have not heard from his father. I am quite in dark. I cannot say anything about the date of his marriage.
10) He received all the money promised to him. He was dissatisfied . He filed a petition in court.

Exercise on synthesis of sentence--part 3:

11) I am young . You are old and experienced. I am afraid of your age and dignity. I dare not speak my mind openly before you.
12) A brave and honest man will speak out . He will not be afraid of consequence . A timid man may keep silent at the time of danger . He may tell falsehood. He is afraid of some harm coming to him .
13) We must catch the 10 o' clock train. There is only half an hour left . We must start without further delay.
14) He was my class fellow . He became a great man. He has grown proud . He has forgotten his old friends.
15) My servant saved a few hundred rupees. He bought land with it. The monsoon failed . There were no crops. The poor man came to grief. He had nothing to live on.

Exercise on synthesis of sentence--part 4:

16) The Pandavs left their home . They roamed in the forest for a number of years. They tried to live there in peace. Their enemies wanted to give them trouble. They
devised many ways to harm them.
17) A false fire alarm is given from time to time on a ship. On hearing the false alarm, the crew went through fire and life boat drill. This is done to train the crew of an emergency .
18) He is an idle and careless boy . The other boys in the school are not as idle and careless. The report was to this effect . His father received the report . He was much pained to receive it.
19) A dog was eating a large piece of meat . A crow flew down from a tree. It came near the dog . It tore off a small piece. It then flew back to tree.
20) A hungry traveler was travelling through a desert. He found a bag . He was highly delighted. He opened the bag. He found nothing but gold coins.
He was sorry. He expected something to eat.

Exercise on synthesis of sentence--part 5:

21) A fox saw a crow perched on a tree. It had a large piece of cheese in its beak. The fox praised the crow's singing . The crow was pleased with the flattery.
The crow began to sing . The crow dropped his cheese.
22) The lion was once king of beast . At last he became weak with old age. He was unable to obtain food. He was slowly dying with hunger .
23) He had read Kalidas . He has read his poetry also. He had read them when he was fourteen. He told us this .
24) He wrote a letter . He wrote it for some reason . He wrote it to his officer. He told me about this.
25) He stole a book . It has the owner's name written on it. The owner was known to him. I was told this.

Exercise on synthesis of sentence--part 6:

26) We had in this town a gentleman. I very much respected him. He was very fond of reading history . It was about twelve years ago.
27) Sunder visited gardens near Lahore. He was very much impressed by their beauty . He wanted to pass his remaining years near them . This he could do after his retirement from service.
28) Siraj was defeated . He fled from the field of battle . His horse could not carry him more than a few miles.His horse was of purest Arab breed.
29) I gave the man same instructions again and again. I wanted to avoid making mistakes. Mistakes at such time might be fatal.
30) His son and daughter were very much distressed. He was led away before their eyes. They thought he was being led away to his death.

Exercise on synthesis of sentence--part 6:

31) Babar has written a very interesting book . In it he tells the story of his life . A part of his life had been spent in banishment from his own country .
32) My younger brother is going to England. He has taken long leave. He wishes to become a barrister . My elder brother is already there.
33) A lion was drinking water from a clear pond . His stately mane was reflected in the pool. The loin saw the reflection. He greatly admired his mane. He was afterwards pursed by hunters with guns. He then found his mane useless.
34) The sun had risen. The violence of the storm has now abated . The Admiral landed by means of small boat. His object was to protect his vessel from the attack of enemy.
35) The examination will commence next week . They will be held in the University Hall. They have always been held there. No other building is large enough to hold all candidates. They number several thousands. Each require a desk to himself.

Exercise on synthesis of sentence--part 7:

36) The cricket match was over . The High School boys had defeated their opponents . They returned to their school in triumph. The Principal was very pleased at their success. He gave them a feast.
37) A violent wind blew. The wind dashed to the ground many butterflies . It tore their wings. The ants will carry away the torn wings to their nests.
38) He wanted to go to Delhi. His purpose in going there was to see the Durbar. The Durbar was to celebrate the coronation of the Emperor. There was a great crowd at railway station. He was unable to find a seat in the train. He waited for
five hours . He had to return home.
39) A fox was once tired and hungry . He had wondered about all day . He had nothing to eat and drink. He entered a vineyard. Then he saw bunches of ripe grapes hanging overhead.
40) An anecdote is related of Fraderic the Great . Fredric was King of Prussia. One day he was seated in his private room. On that occasion a petition was brought to him. The petition was accompanied by a request . The request was that the King should read the petition immediately.
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Figures of speech with examples

Figures of speech

Figures of speech is a form of expression that deviates from the ordinary mode of speech , or the literal meaning of a word or phrase , for the sake of more powerful and distinctive effect.
Classification of figures of speech :
The figures of speech can be arranged under six main heads as shown below:
1) Figures based on agreement , similarity or resemblance. They are used when like objects come under notice .
Simile , Metaphor ,etc., come under this group .
2) Figures based on contrast ,difference or surprise. They are used when unlike object come under our notice .
The Figures- Antithesis ,Epigram , belong to this class.
3) Figures based on contiguity , or on the principle of association of idea. These are principally Metonymy  , Synecdoche and Hyperbole.
4) Figures based on imagination , i.e. , those figures which bring to our imagination lifeless things as if they are alive .
To this class belong such figures as Personification , Vision , Apostrophe and others.
5) Figures based on indirectness of speech . These Figures are employed when we want to suggest things by implication rather than by direct or simple assertions .
To this class belongs Irony , Sarcasm , and others .
6) Figures based on sound . We use these figures when we make the sound of the words suggest the sense or when we fix a point more firmly in the memory .
Such figures are Alliteration , Rhyme or Assonance.
1) Simile
2) Metaphor
3) Personification
4) Apostrophe
5) Antithesis
6) Oxymoron
7) Epigram
8) Hyperbole
9) Irony
10) Alliteration
11) Metonymy
12) Synecdoche
13) Transferred Epithet
14) Onomatopaeia
15) Pathetic fallacy
16) Pun

Figures of Speech

1) Simile is the resemblance on some point between two object of different kinds . This resemblance is expressed by word "like" or "as".

a) We two alone shall sing like birds in a cage .
b) Sardar Patel was as firm as a rock.
c) The Assyrians came down like a wolf on the fold .
d) The matter was as clear as crystal .
e) His heart was as good as gold .
f) The leader was as proud as a peacock.
g) Milton had a voice whose sound was like the sea.

2) A Metaphor is the resemblance which one object bears to another .It is implied Simile in a shorter form, and is expressed without the sing of comparison ,"like" or "as".

a) He was a lion in the fight .
b) The camel is the ship of the dessert .
c) Life is but an empty dream .
d) He was a rock in firmness .
e) Lala Lajapat Rai was the lion of Punjab.
f) Gandhiji was the father of nation.

3) Personification is that Figure of speech by which irrational animals , inanimate object and abstract ideas are spoken of as if they were persons or human begins.

a) The hills rejoice and clap hands .
b) The angry sea dashed its waves against the shores.
c) The thirsty drank the water .
d) 'O Solitude' where are the charms,The sahe have seen thy face.
e) Death lays its icy hand on king and beggars.
f) Yonder comes the powerful king of day .
g) 'Ye winds, that have made me your sport.'

4) Apostrophe is an exclamatory address to a person ,dead or absent or some inanimate object , as if that person or subject were actually before the speaker.

a) O Solitude , where are thy charms!
b) Ye winds ,convey to me some report.
c) Milton, thou shouldst be living this hour .
d) O Caeser , thou art mighty yet.
e) O Death , where is thy sting? O Grave where is thy victory?
f) O sleep , even thou hast left me.

5) Antithesis is the contrast or opposition between two different objects or qualities for the sake of emphasis .

a) Not that I loved Caeser less, but that I loved Rome more .
b) To err is human , to forgive divine.
c) A bird in hand is worth two in the bush.
d) Speech is silver , silence is gold .
e) Give every man thy ear, few thy voice .
f) United we stand , divided we fall.
g) Man propose , God disposes.

6) Oxymoron is a form of Antithesis and consists of joining to a Noun an epithet that seems to be in contradiction to it .

a) He lived a life of busy idleness .
b) James I was called the wisest fool.
c) Thus idly busy rolls their world away.
d) "His honor rooted in dishonor stood,
And faith unfaithful kept him falsely true."
e) The boy is regularly irregular .
f) He yielded himself to the kind cruelty of the surgeon's knife.
g) The Congress suffered an honorable defeat in the election.

7) An Epigram is a pointed antithetical saying which conveys a striking thought in a few words.

a) Language is the art of concealing thought.
b) He makes no friend who never made a foe.
c) The child is the father of the man.
d) Still waters run deep .
e) An empty vessel , makes much noise.
f) A little learning is a dangerous thing .
g) Fools rush in where angles fear to tread .

8) Hyperbole means exaggeration . This Figure of Speech represents things as greater or less, better or worse, than they are in reality .

a) They were swifter than eagle and stronger than lion.
b) All the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand.
c) A cry that would raise the death from the graves.
d) Rivers of blood and mountains of stain.
e) The waves rose mountain high .
f) This speaks volumes of your industry .
g) As many farewells as there be stars in heaven.

9) Irony is a Figure of speech in which we utter the very reverse of what we mean, with a view to add force to our statement .

a) When that the poor have cried , Caeser hath wept,
Ambition should be made of sterner stuff.
Yet Brutus is an honorable man.
b) When Munj ordered Bhoj to be killed : Bhoj said,
" O Mnuj , the earth did not go with Ram and
Yudhishthra , but it shall certainly go with you."
c) How beautiful you look. Just see your face in the looking glass.

10) Alliteration is the frequent repetition of the same letter or syllable .

a) A strong man struggling with the storms of fate .
b) Tears from the depth of some divine despair .
c) The fair breeze blew , the white foam flew.
d) The lordly lion left his lonely lair.
e) How high his honor holds his haughty head .
f) I slip, I slide; I gloom ,I glance.

11) Metonymy is the use of the name of one thing for that of another closely associated with it.

a) He drank the cup .
b) I have finished Shakespeare .
c) He succeeded to the crown .
d) Grey  hairs must be respected.
e) The pen is mightier than the sword.
f) The whole  city went to see the fair.
g) The House decided against the resolution .

12) Synecdoche is the use of the name of a part for that of the whole , or the whole for a part.

a) He manages to earn his bread .
b) He is a poor creature.
c) There is a mixture of the tiger and ape in his character.
d) All the rank and fashion came out to see the sight.
e) He has seen seventy summers.
f) He has many  mouths to feed.
g) The sword must always rule.
h) All the wit and learning of the country were gathered at one place.

13) Transferred Epithet : In this Figure of Speech an Adjective is sometimes transferred from one word to another, to which it does not strictly belong.

a) He lay all night on his sleepless pillow.
b) The plough man homeward plods his  weary way.
c) He passed an anxious night.
d) As soon as he entered, the noisy room became quiet.

14) Onomatopaeia is the Figure of Speech in which the use of words, which, by their sound, suggest their meaning.

The following are some examples:
his, splash, murmur, cuckoo, clatter , twitter, hum, babble ,buzz, crash, ripple, roar, hush, bark,etc..

15) Pathetic fallacy is the Figure of Speech by which human feelings or characteristics are attributed to inanimate things .

a) The rude sea grew civil at her song.
b) Earth felt the wound ; Nature from her seat
Sighing through all her works ,gave sign of woe.
c) They rowed her across the cruel crawling foam.
d) The moon burned the hearts of the lovers.
e) All the trees in the forest flowered at the sight of Ram and Sita.

16) Pun : A Pun is a Figure of Speech which consists in using words in a double sense to produce a ludicrous effect.

a) May I mend your  sole ? (soul)
b) He took one hundred eggs and won? (one)
c) Is life worth living ? It depends upon the  liver.
d) An ambassador is an honest person who  lies aboard for the good of his country.

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What is a phrase and a clause?

A Phrase and a Clause

THE PHRASE

We have read that a group of words which is so arranged as to give complete sense is a sentence.
Now look at the following groups of words:
He is wet through and through.
Life is not a bed of roses,
He ran at full speed,
A thing of beauty is a joy for ever,
He is a fool of the first water.
He is over head and ears in debt.
The italicised groups of words in the sentences make sense but not complete sense.They are called Phrases.
A Phrase is,therefore,a group of words that make sense but not complete sense.It has neither a Subject nor a Predicate.

THE CLAUSE

Now study the following:
We cannot start while it is raining.
I think that you have been misunderstood.
People who help others are always liked.
The italicised groups of words in the above sentences have Sujects and Predicates and therefore look like sentence.They are called Clauses.
A group of words which has a subject and a verb (or predicate of its own) and forms part of a sentence is called a Clause.

Exercise

Say whether the italicised group of words in the following sentence are Phrases or Clauses:
1.The sun sets in the west and rises in the east.
2.He is a boy who is loved by all.
3.Always keep the wicked at an arm's length.
4.I work hard so that I may get a prize.
5.He is a man of wealth.
6.I do not know what he wants.
7.He comes to see me off and on.
8.He has fallen on evil days.
9.Come back by tea-time,please.
10.He cried at the top of his voice.

KINDS OF CLAUSES

Look at the following sentences:
(1)When I had finished my work,I went to bed.
(2)He said that he had read the book.
The above sentences have two parts each:
(1)When I had finished my work and
I went to bed.
(2)He said and
that he had read the book.

Each part contains a Subject and a Predicate and is,therefore,a Clause.
In the first sentence:
The clause "I went to bed" makes good sense by itself and stands by itself as a complete sentence.It is,therefore,called the Principal Clause.
The clause"when I had finished my work" does not stand by itself and depends on the clause"I went to bed".It is,therefore,called the Subordinate Clause.
Similarly in the second sentence:
"He Said" is the Principal Clause and
"That he had read the book." the Subordinate clause.
Now study this sentence:
He works hard and (he) earns his livelihood.
This sentence too consists of two parts:
He works hard and
He earns his livelihood.
Each part contains a Subject and Predicate and is therefore a clause.But there is a difference.Each clause stands by itself and does not depend on the other.They are called Co-ordinate Clauses.
It is clear from the above that there are two types of clauses, Subordinate and co-ordinate.
Subordinate Clause are introduced by subordinate conjunctions,relative pronouns and co-ordinate.
Subordinate clauses are introduced by subordinate conjunctions,relative pronouns and relatives adverbs(when,whether,how,if though etc.)while co-ordinate clauses are introduced by co-ordinate conjunctions.(and,nut etc)

 

 

EXERCISE

Break up each of the following sentences into clauses and state whether the kind of each clause is subordinate or co-ordinate:
1.I believe that he is innocent.
2.When he returned home,it was raining heavily.
3.He worked that he might score good marks.
4.He confessed that he was guilty.
5.She must read her books or she will fail,
6.As soon as he went away, I went to bed.
7.I loved him but he hated me.
8.The boy hit the ball and it struck the window.
9.He is so proud that he would not beg.
10.Work hard or you will fail.

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Analysis of Sentence

Sentence: A sentence is a collection of words so arranged as to express one complete affirmation or assertion . Every sentence must have a Finite Verb .

Clause : A clause is that part of sentence which contains a subject and a predicate of its own.

A sentence or a clause consists of two principal parts - The Subject and the Predicate.

1) Simple Sentence : A simple sentence contains one subject and one predicate only.
a) He became a king .
2) Complex Sentence: A complex sentence contains one Principal clause joined to one or more Subordinate Clause which explains or modifies it.
a) A king was very sad , because his enemies had invaded his country and were cruel to his people .

This sentence has three clause as it has three Finite verbs:
1) A king was very sad .
2) Because his enemies has invaded his country .
3) (Because his enemies ) were cruel to his people .
3) Compound Sentence : A Compound Sentence contains two or more complete sentence or independent propositions ,connecting by Coordinating Conjunctions .
a) He called me , but I did not go.
This sentence has two clause which have meanings independently:
1) He called me.
2) I did not go.

A) Simple Sentence:

The important points are:
1) Subject
a) Subject-proper
b) Enlargement of the Subject

2) Predicate
a) Finite Verb
b) Object and its enlargement
c) Complement and its enlargement
d) Adverbial adjuncts

Examples
1) He was a pious man.
2) This great man died at the age of eighty .
3) Students from far off countries flocked to the Nalanda University for admission.
4) Tulsidas , the great Hindi poet, lived in the sixteen century .
5) My uncle gave me a watch .
6) All the members of the team elected him captain.

B) Complex Sentence

A Complex Sentence contains one Principal clause and one or more Subordinate Clauses.Subordinate Clauses are divided into Noun Clauses , Adjective Clauses and Adverb Clauses.

1) The Noun Clause
The noun clause occupies the place of the Noun in the sentence as Subject or the Object of the Principal clause, as Object of a Preposition, as Complement of a Verb , as Case in Apposition to some Noun.
It is used as follows :
a) The Subject of the Verb:
That he has failed surprises me.
Whether he will come or not is uncertain.
When he will come is not certain.
Where he has gone is not known to me.

b) The Object of a Transitive Verb:
He earned whatever he could .
Can you tell me where he lives .
He says that he is working hard.
Ask if he will come.

c) The Object of a Preposition:
You must attend to what I say.
There is no way out except that he should obey.
I see no meaning in what you say.
All depends on how you behave.

d) Complement of a Verb:
His great delight was that he passed the examination.
Life is what you make it.
His opinion will be that you should be excused.
They made him what he wanted to be.

e) Case in Apposition to a Noun or the Pronoun 'it' :
His opinion that Mohan is not a good boy is wrong.
Your belief that there are ghosts seems mistaken.
We believe in your statement that you did not insult him.
It is certain that he will give me  a watch.

2) The Adjective Clause:

When a clause limits or qualifies a Noun or Pronoun , it is of the nature of an Adjective.
The Adjective clause should be introduced by Relative Pronoun or Relative Adverb .
The Adjective Clause must always have a Subject which it qualifies.

a) Relative Pronouns :
This is the boy who stole my watch .
The dog that bit the boy has died.
I have lost my pen which my brother gave me .
Here is the boy whose books were lost.
I know the man whom you sent to me this morning.
This is such a nice pen as I would like to have .
He is the same boy as I would like to meet.
All that glitters is not gold.
This is the house in which he lives .
This is the pen with which I would like to write .
Here comes the man to whom you were speaking .
The boy from whom I borrowed this book is a friend of mine.

b) Relative Adverbs:
There was a time when there was no railways.
He has run away to a place where no one can find him .
This is not the way how you should behave.
Casabianca stood on the burning deck whence all but he had fled .
He has come from a place whither no one has yet been.

3) The Adverb Clause :
Adverb clause does the work of an Adverb and modifies some Verb, Adjective or Adverb in another clause .
Adverb clause are introduced mostly by Subordinating Conjuctions.

1) Adverb Clauses of Time :
He wept when he saw a naked beggar .
While he was sleeping they carried him to an unknown place.
We reached the school before the bell had rang.
Every time the Sadhu picked it up, the scorpian stung him.
As soon as he saw him, he got ready to flight.

2) Adverb Clause of Place :
Horses can go where even cart cant go .
We followed him wherever he went.

3) Adverb Clause of Purpose:
He sold his house in order that he might make a profit.
He works hard that he may pass .
Work hard lest you should fail.

4) Adverb Clause of Reason or Cause:
It is cold at night because there is no sun to warm us.
As the enemy has invaded his country , the king was very sad.
They were glad that their wicked enemy was so well punished.

5) Adverb Clause of Condition:
If we take care of them , they will serve us well .
You cannot succeed unless you work hard.
I shall excuse you provided that you come punctually in future.
' I can come in case every thing is ready .

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